86 Ulisse Aldrovandi

extremity of this growth, being narrower in some women and wider in others; hence, a greater or lesser difficulty arises during the first sexual encounter. The blood that flows during first intercourse comes not only from the vessels but also from the tearing of the fleshy membranes and the abrasion of the caruncles. This tearing is called "defloration," as it destroys that structure which once mimicked the calyx of a rose.

With these things understood, we come to the explanation of the third part, called the neck of the womb. It consists of a membranous substance, just like its other parts, and its orifice resembles the shape of the mouth of a newborn puppy or a tench fish; among doctors and surgeons, it is known as the internal orifice of the womb. Although it is continuous with the ample cavity of the vaginal canal, it is nevertheless extremely narrow, except for that moment when it receives the male seed, or when a formal evacuation occurs, such as menstruation or the purging of unhealthy humors. To ensure that the seed, once received, does not easily slip out of the womb, nature has placed certain roughnesses—similar to those observed on the tongues of cats—along the entire length of the cavity of the aforementioned neck. Their roots are situated internally while their sharp points aim upward, so that they allow easy entry but make exit difficult. Consequently, from the moment the seed is received at conception until birth, the mouth of the womb is closed so tightly that it will not even admit a medical probe, as Galen has excellently attested. However, daily experience shows that this is not always strictly necessary, since large evacuations of blood and purgings of humors sometimes occur in pregnant women, and occasionally even a second, faulty conception is expelled while the primary fetus remains safe. But such cases are rare, just as superfetations are rarer still.

The fourth and most excellent part of all is the uterus, for the sake of which nature fashioned all the other parts, both simple and composite. It is called the *uterus* from the word for a wineskin (*uter*), because, like one, it is easily extended and contracted. Furthermore, it takes the shape of a medium-sized pear and possesses a membranous substance similar to the other parts. In pregnant women, the uterus becomes larger through extension, especially as the fetus grows; indeed, the infant then curls up and assumes a spherical shape, turning its head toward its knees and drawing up each leg, with both hands placed upon the knees. Facing the back of the mother's womb with its front side and turning its own back toward the mother’s belly—despite what many anatomists have written—experience once again confirms this, as can be observed in the figure above.

Finally, to bring an end to this chapter, something must be said regarding the bones of the back and the other limbs. The back is composed of many bones in which the spinal or dorsal marrow resides. The back is divided into four parts: the neck, the mid-back, the loins, and the *os sacrum*—called "sacred" or "great" because the Greek *hieron* signifies both. This bone can rightly be called great in comparison to the other vertebrae of the back. According to Galen, there are twenty-four vertebrae (or *spondyli*) leading down to the sacrum: seven constitute the neck, twelve the thorax, and five the loins. If we look at the arms and hands—setting aside the muscles, cords, nerves, arteries, and veins—the bones present themselves. The first is called the bone of the arm, or the *adjutorium* (humerus), and by some the *ulna*. This bone is joined to the shoulder blade and, toward the elbow, connects to two other bones called the *focilia* (radius and ulna), which reach as far as the *rafeta* or wrist. According to Galen, the wrist is made of eight bones, and the metacarpus is integrated from four.

Since Galen has treated the bones of the fingers and their uses at length, we refer the readers to him. If we consider the lower bones, we encounter the femur, or hip bone. To better understand the connection of these bones, it must be remembered that at the end of the vertebrae, where the sacrum was said to be, two other bones are attached to it. The front part is called the pubic bone, the upper part the ilium, and the posterior part the ischium, the cavity of which is known as the "box bone" (acetabulum). This cavity is filled by the head of the femur, which at its other end joins the knee at a certain kneecap. From there follow the bones of the lower leg, which are two; Avicenna called them the "greater and lesser reeds," while others have referred to them as the "pipes" (tibia and fibula). At their ends, these bones have two prominences called the ankle bones or the talus.

Finally, the human foot was fashioned by nature not only for walking but also for grasping; therefore, it does not have the same construction as that of beasts: where-