The History of Monsters. 733

...moreover, although both the poor and the wealthy or powerful die, the death of a Prince is more noted and observed because of his fame and high status.

When it was argued that comets depend on natural causes and have no relation to any particular death, the response is that their immediate cause is indeed linked to the deaths of Princes. However, their primary moving cause signifies the power of Mars, which usually designates a particularly violent death; at such times, Mars exercises his dominion through the upheaval of the elements. Since he rules over cycles, he seems, in a way, to produce the cause of destruction.

Finally, when asking whether a comet is a sign or a cause of death, it must be said that a comet is a sign, not a cause. The dominion of Mars signifies battles, death, and strife among peoples; because of excessive dryness and heat, great movements of anger are conceived, making nations bold and inclined to fight. Thus, the significance of a comet primarily refers back to Mars, who is held to be the cause of war and the destruction of peoples.

The Admirable Variety of Chasms

Beyond monstrous comets, many other phenomena should be considered, such as "shields," "torches," and other fiery objects of this kind, which meteorologists classify among celestial portents. For the present, however, we shall record "chasms" (or "gulfs"), as they are worthy of greater consideration. Among the Greeks, *chasma* (χάσμα) or *chaskein* (χάσκειν) signifies a gap or a gaping opening, a word derived from the Greek verb *chainein* (χαίνειν), meaning to gape or yawn. Thus, the term *chasmatias* (χασματίας) is found in Aristotle’s books *On the Heavens and the Earth*, denoting an earthquake; this is because when an earthquake occurs, the earth opens up and produces a kind of gap. Consequently, meteorologists have transferred this name to certain celestial impressions, especially when the sky seems to split open and reveal certain gaps or abysses.

Indeed, when a thicker and more turbulent exhalation takes on a certain darkness within, but appears thinner and whiter on the outside due to the proximity of light, this diversity of appearance represents the likeness of a deep object in the sky, which seems no different from a gap or a whirlpool. In such cases, the whiteness strikes the vision more forcefully, making it appear closer to the eyes; meanwhile, due to the opposite cause, the darkness of the exhalation is believed to be at a greater distance from the eyes, appearing as if it were gaping. For this reason, the common people, ignorant of these causes, are struck with great wonder by these celestial chasms, viewing them as monstrous.

Not only chasms, but many other similar apparitions are sometimes seen in the same place, such as "pits," "windows," "jars," and others of this type. The reasoning behind these is the same as for the chasms, differing only in the arrangement of their dark and light parts. It often happens that the white and black are perceived differently than they are in chasms: sometimes the white will be located inside and the black on the outside; sometimes both are placed side-by-side; sometimes they are equal in size, and sometimes unequal, separated by wide margins.

This great variety of so many celestial monsters and images usually arises for the exact same reason that we sometimes observe a flame under a chimney mixing in various ways with smoke. From this mixture, the likenesses of many things result; in the same way, a turbulent and thick exhalation mixed with the air represents similar apparitions.

Concerning what pertains to Chasms, it will also be useful to add to what has been said that occasionally the likenesses of certain firebrands seem to fall from them. Meteorologists call these "effluvia of chasms," as will be shown in the illustrations to be placed in their proper place.