732 Ulisse Aldrovandi

"I once believed that for my belly, when it was recently unwell, the purging cups I swallowed would have been enough. But the seeds of the disease have spread into a vast, heavy mass; from the head, the arms, legs, and feet now fall ill. The heart, once the source of life's vigor, is now the cause of ruin; death now resides where safety used to dwell securely. The sickened part is unaware of its own spreading rot, yet it exerts its force even upon the healthy members. Come then, let the earth be swept clean from its highest peak; rough backs do not fear soft brooms. Let a messenger emerge from the gates of Capricorn toward the South Wind, bearing a terrifying mane of scattered fire. Thus, if my Belgium has been purged by the old lash, let this comet act as a physician for all of Europe. May Kings grow mild toward their people through their own mortality, and may the commoners learn to submit to their rightful King. While the madness of war falls away, severed at the root, let a tight-knit love bind back together what hatred tore apart."

At this point, we should also review the comets observed by Aristotle, Hippocrates, and those of our own modern age, but the nature of this work prevents us from lingering too long on them. We will, however, attempt to resolve several doubts regarding the omens of comets.

The first is that there seems to be no logical reason to believe that comets can predict the death of Princes more than that of their subjects. If their cause is attributed to exhalations, these are raised from the earth of Princes no more than from that of commoners. If, on the other hand, the cause is reduced to a conjunction of stars, these stars do not seem to act upon the realm of Kings and the wealthy any more than upon the poor and lowly; for according to Aristotle’s *Meteorology*, the face of the lower world is subject to the face of the higher.

Secondly, according to the opinion of the Philosopher, comets depend on natural causes and do not regard anything else; therefore, they cannot be related to the death of an individual or to war. If they were related to such things, they would have to relate as a cause, an effect, or a sign. Yet none of these can be asserted. A comet is not a cause, for it is neither the efficient, formal, final, nor material cause of these events. Likewise, it is not an effect of them, because one does not necessarily follow the other, whereas an efficient cause must necessarily accompany its effect. Finally, a comet should not be considered a sign, as it lacks a proper correspondence; it is well established that there must always be the greatest correspondence between a sign and the thing signified.

Furthermore, five different types of comets are generally categorized according to the five wandering stars or planets. However, not all planets produce such foul and malignant effects as those said to come from comets. Jupiter signifies good fortune; likewise, Venus and Mercury do not indicate misfortune. From this, one might conclude that comets ought not always to predict and indicate evil, though this is the role always assigned to them. Moreover, Albumasur wrote in his *Book of Conjunctions of the Planets* that the arrival of fires and comets does not depend on any planet except when in the air, and especially when their rays are in earthly or airy signs, provided the Moon does not interfere. This is because the Moon stirs up watery vapor, which can later hinder fiery effects. Therefore, one should not assert that five types of comets must be considered according to the five planets, since such impressions are only produced in conjunction with Mars; thus, they are said to be generated by Mars as the prime mover. Such phenomena also sometimes occur in the meeting of Jupiter and Mars, since from this coupling, sparks, flashes, and fires running through the air are created.

Regarding the first difficulty concerning the omen of the death of Kings and Princes, it must be said that exhalations are indeed raised from the lands of the Great and the wealthy just as much as from the poor, and consequently, the death of both is signified. As the altered air infects the blood, it disposes it toward the production of serious ailments. Nevertheless, Princes and nobles, because they are more delicate, incur this danger of death more than common people, who, because of their physical strength, are able to resist lethal diseases. Furthermore,