History of Monsters. 329

so skillfully that to everyone it seems to be an intentional painting. Some attribute this to a miracle and believe it represents an image of Saint Jerome. According to the same author, in the place where Saint Stephen was overwhelmed by stones, his image is seen impressed upon a rock. Indeed, from the same source, on a certain rock of the Kidron, or the Valley of Jehoshaphat, there appear the marks of the hands and feet of Christ the Lord, who fell upon that rock after being bound and violently handled. He also relates that the rock which once served as a bed for the Prophet Elijah represents his likeness. Let us grant that these things exceed the power of nature, and refer other instances of this kind to the accounts of Olaus Magnus. He reported that in the region of the Ostrogoths, there are stones in a certain river, some of which resemble human hands, others feet, others arms, and others a head; thus the inhabitants, accustomed to such sights, are moved by no wonder. What more can be said? In certain torrents of our own region, stones are sometimes found that are so industriously carved by nature that they represent loaves of bread, cheeses, pears, and even animals. I remember seeing a large piece of cinnabar vein found in the mines which displayed agate, crystal, emerald, and amethyst; this could be likened to a monstrous animal composed of parts from different species. A similar artificial monster is observed in inanimate things when a carver, through lack of skill, sculpts a monster in stone, fashioning the foot of one creature and the ears of another in the engraving. This is also done by an unskilled painter who, often ignorant of the true appearance and features of animals, depicts them as monsters to everyone's amazement.

If we turn our attention to living things, and first to plants, we find that both natural and artificial monsters are produced among them as well. A natural monster occurs when a monstrous herb is generated by nature itself. An artificial monster is created when we force the growing fruit of a plant into the shape of a vessel, or when we produce growing cucumbers in the shape of snakes by restricting them with bonds. If we consider beasts, natural and artificial monsters occur among them too. Natural ones are mostly hybrids, which arise from the mating of beasts of different species; hence this riddle is told:

Unlike my father, and of a different figure from my mother,

An offspring of a confused race, unfit for a race of my own,

I am born from others, yet no one is born from me.

And there are others of this kind, such as the Indian dogs given as a gift to Alexander the Great by the King of the Epirots, which were said to be descended from dogs and tigers. There are also the Thoes, which according to the poet Oppian were animals produced from a panther and a wolf, or according to Pollux, from a fox and a wolf, because these animals imitated the voice of a fox. Furthermore, Aristotle, in his *History of Animals*, admitted these cross-bred procreations among birds and fish as well. On this subject, the same philosopher in that same work wrote: "It is always said that Africa brings forth something new, because different kinds of animals mate there due to the scarcity of water; since there are few watering places, many different animals gather at them." Thus, in Aristotle’s view, the generation of hybrid animals is not dismissed. We, therefore, need only reject those cross-bred offspring which some claim emerge from animals that differ too greatly in nature, temperament, and size.

Artificial monsters are also fashioned in beasts, for instance, if the front feet of a newborn dog are amputated; once the wound is quickly healed, it is forced to walk on its hind feet. These monsters are created either immediately after birth or over the course of time. I knew a traveling performer who, moved by anger, cut off the front feet of a certain unusual baboon; nevertheless, the beast recovered after being treated and always walked upright on its hind legs.

If we turn our minds to man, we encounter both natural and artificial monsters. Those prepared artificially differ according to the time they are made; some are made monsters immediately from the womb, as we observe in those who inhabit the region of Phasis. These people have very pointed heads because their heads are shaped into a peak by the hand of a midwife immediately after birth, while the skull is still tender and soft. This was because that nation once believed a pointed head was a sign of the most noble race, and no other nation seems to be characterized by such a head. Furthermore, in the course of time, monsters also occur in adult men due to parts being mutilated or entirely cut off; for often soldiers with mutilated arms and severed feet