The History of Monsters, page 111

# KINSHIP BY BLOOD AND MARRIAGE

Blood relationship and affinity—or agnation and cognation—refer respectively to the direct line and the transverse or lateral line. When considering the direct line, looking upward indicates parents, and downward indicates children; looking to the sides indicates brothers and sisters. The degrees of blood relationship are recorded in the *Institutes* of Justinian as follows: in the first degree, the Father and Mother are placed above, and the son and daughter below. In the second degree, the Grandfather and Grandmother are above, the Grandson and Granddaughter below, and the Brother and Sister are in the lateral position. In the third degree, the Great-grandfather and Great-grandmother are above, the Great-grandson and Great-granddaughter below, and in the lateral line are the Son and Daughter of a brother or sister, followed by the Paternal Uncle and Aunt, and the Maternal Uncle and Aunt. The fourth degree includes the Great-great-grandfather and Great-great-grandmother above, the Great-great-grandson and Great-great-granddaughter below, and in the lateral line the Grandson and Granddaughter of a brother or sister, followed by the Great-uncle and Great-aunt, both paternal and maternal, as well as first cousins.

The fifth degree encompasses the Great-great-great-grandfather and Great-great-great-grandmother above, the Great-great-great-grandson and Great-great-great-granddaughter below, and in the lateral line the Great-grandson and Great-granddaughter of a brother or sister, followed by the Great-great-uncle and Great-great-aunt, as well as paternal and maternal cousins. The sixth degree contains the Great-great-great-great-grandfather and Great-great-great-great-grandmother above, the Great-great-great-great-grandson and Great-great-great-great-granddaughter below, and in the lateral line the Great-great-grandson and Great-great-granddaughter of a brother or sister, followed by the Great-great-great-uncles and aunts, and those born from paternal and maternal cousins. From this, it should be gathered that while kinship is gradually separated by these degrees, it is later rejoined by the bond of marriage, and a relationship that was, in a sense, fleeing is called back.

Those who are first produced are called children; from children come grandchildren; from grandchildren, great-grandchildren; from great-grandchildren, great-great-grandchildren; from great-great-grandchildren, great-great-great-grandchildren; and from great-great-great-grandchildren, the sixth generation of descendants is born. The beginning of generation, however, is the Father and Mother. The Grandfather is the Father’s Father; the Great-grandfather is the Grandfather’s Father; the Great-great-grandfather is the Great-grandfather’s Father; the Great-great-great-grandfather is the Great-great-grandfather's Father; and the Great-great-great-great-grandfather is the Great-great-great-grandfather's Father, who occupies the highest place in Justinian’s family tree.

Thus, according to Varro, the "father" (*pater*) is so named because he "discloses" (*patefaciat*) the seed, and the "mother" (*mater*) is like the "matter" (*materia*) in which the hidden seed germinates. Both are called "parents" (*parentes*) because they "give birth" (*pariant*) to children, and they are called "children" (*filii*) because they "are made" (*fiant*) from parents. They are also called "free children" (*liberi*) to distinguish them from slaves; for just as slaves serve under the power of a Master, so children serve under the power of a father. Alternatively, they are called *liberi* because they were born from a free marriage; indeed, those born from a free man and a slave woman are said to be of slave status, since those being born take their designation from the inferior condition of the parents. Those emanating from concubines are called "natural children," since Nature, rather than the honor of marriage, produced them.

They are also called *Nothi* because, in the opinion of some, they take their origin from an "unknown" (*non nota*) woman; but we should rather say it is because they are called *pathos* by the Greeks, from *a* (privative) and *theios* (divine), since they were not born according to divine precept. Likewise, they are called *Spurii* from the Greek *speirein*, "to sow," since they have nothing from the Father except his seed. However, some call a *nothus* one born of a noble Father and an ignoble Mother, and a *spurius* one born of a noble Mother and an ignoble Father, or from a widow where the Father is uncertain. A "brother" (*frater*) is so named as if he were "almost another" (*ferè alter*), or according to others, they are called *fratres* because they spring from the same "fruit" (*fructus*). Those are called *germani* brothers who are born from the same "germ" (*germen*), namely from the same mother, but not necessarily from the same father. Sisters (*sorores*) are named as if born of a "different lot" (*diversa sorte*), because in the course of time they are separated from the family and hurry to another.

The sons of brothers are called *patrueles* because their fathers were brothers. *Consobrini* are named as if they were *consororini*, because they were born from two sisters. *Sobrini* are the children of *consobrini*, and the children of a maternal aunt are called *fratrueles*. A Grandfather (*avus*) is so called as if "desiring" (*avens*), namely rejoicing in the propagation of his offspring; or rather *avius*, because since he is an old man, he begins to "depart from the way" (*à via*) of life. A paternal uncle is a *patruus*, the Brother of the Father, because he sometimes stands in the place of the father. The maternal uncle is called *avunculus*, the brother of the mother, because he is placed in the third position like a grandfather; for just as the son proceeds through the father to the Grandfather, so he proceeds through the Mother to the maternal uncle. For just as