# History of Monsters, 78. By Ulisse Aldrovandi

It remains for us to descend to the naming of the other lower parts one by one. From the lower part of the trunk, between the hips, hang the male organs—namely the testes and the penis (whereas in women the vulva is observed, named like *valva*, a folding door, because through it the fetus exits as if through a gate).

This part is also called the "member" by way of excellence, since it alone, among all other members, is capable of procreation. For this reason, the ancients assigned the care of gardens to Priapus, as gardens are always more fertile than fields. It is further called the *mentula* from its standing out, the *muto*, and the *verpa* from the retracted skin—which is why the Jews, being circumcised, are called *verpi*. It is also called "nature," because a great power of birth resides within it. Likewise, it is called the *nervus* (nerve), *vena* (vein), and *inguen* (groin) in the works of Juvenal, although this last name applies to both sexes. Again, it is called the *penis* because it hangs down like the tail (*cauda*) of a beast. Some call it the *psoleon*, but this name derives from the Greek *psylo*, meaning the prepuce. Others call it the *colis*, as if *caulis* (a stalk), a word indicating a club or spear; hence the testes are later called *colei*. Finally, it is named the *veretrum*, perhaps from *verenda* (shameful things), since these parts are only mentioned with modesty. From the root of this member hangs a membrane called the scrotum or hernia, containing the testes (or testicles), so named because they provide testimony (*testimonium*) of virility. Regarding this, someone once took the opportunity to write in verse: "Are we so called because we testify to the sex? Or because we both stand as witnesses to your naughtiness?"

On either side hang the hips, or *femora*, so called from carrying (*ferendo*), although some distinguish between *femur* and *femen*; for they use the former term for the outer part of the hip, and the latter for the inner, softer part. The boundaries of the hips are the knees (*genua*), named after the cheeks (*genae*), because an infant's knees in the womb are touched by its cheeks. The parts above these are called the *poplites* (hamstrings). From the knees begin the legs (*crura*), named from the Greek *kreo* (to strike) and ending at the ankle (*talus*); their front parts are called the *tibiae* (shins) and the back parts the *surae* (calves).

The part from the bend of the foot to the end of the heel is called the *petasus* and *perna*; thus, swellings in that area caused by cold are called *perniones* (chilblains) by physicians. However, some unlearned folk have named this part, along with its appendages, the *perna* and *petaso* [hams]. These parts, which are included under the name *petasus*, are called *suffragines* in beasts, as if "made underneath" (*subtus factae*). Finally, the foot is recorded with its many integrated parts: namely the heel (*calx* or *calcaneum*), the ankle (*talus*), the sole (*vola*), and the toes. Indeed, the sole of the foot encompasses the heel, the midfoot, and the toes. To these things let us add, as a finishing touch, the distinction between "members" and "joints" (*artus*): for members denote the trunks, while joints—named from *arctando* (binding)—signify the knot and the binding together of the members.

# ANATOMY

Having carefully weighed the external limbs, we consider it worthwhile to explore the internal ones individually as well. To achieve this precisely, it is necessary to divide the body into parts. For this reason, some have divided the human body into the head, the belly, and the members—although Plato, in the *Timaeus*, called the head not a member but the "whole," suggesting that man was born for the sake of contemplation, and therefore the other members were fashioned to serve the head.

Aristotle divided the human body into the head, neck, thorax, two arms, and two legs. More recent anatomists have separated this body (excluding the arms and legs) into three cavities or "bellies." They named the first belly the head, the second the thorax, and the third the lower belly.

According to Galen, the first belly was constructed for the sake of the brain, the second for the heart, and the third for the liver. The head was fashioned by nature to be entirely bony for the protection of the brain, as this member is the primary one and the origin of voluntary motion. The lower belly is entirely fleshy, not only so that it might contain a great abundance of food and expand during a woman's pregnancy, but also so that it might be better suited for expelling waste. The middle belly—namely the thorax—was woven partly from bone and partly from flesh, not only so that it could better dilate when drawing in air, but also