76 Ulisse Aldrovandi

phor, since dogs and vultures track their food by scent. The eyes (*oculi*) are named from "hiding" (*occulendo*), as they are sheltered beneath the eyebrows and cheeks; they possess a pupil (*pupilla*) through which a person sees. The term *cilium* (eyelid) perhaps comes from *cilleo* (to move), and it forms the edge of the upper cheek. Indeed, the "cheek" (*gena*) refers to everything between the beard and the eyelid, protected by hairs like a defensive wall, and is called the *palpebra* (eyelid) from its "palpitating" (*palpitando*). The hollows of the cheeks where tears fall are called "sinuses" (*sinus*) because of a certain resemblance in shape.

Following the cheeks are the jawbones (*malae*), which Pliny claims are unique to humans. They are named from "apples" (*mala*), just as "cheeks" (*genae*) are named from "knees" (*genua*) due to their curved shape; the *mala* is the rounder, more prominent part of the face. From this, the diminutive *maxilla* (jaw) is derived—not because the jaw is small, but because it sits below the *mala*. The jowls (*buccae*) are the parts of the face that can be puffed out or covered by a beard. From *bucca* comes the *buccula*, a type of armor that protects the cheeks. The word *buccula* (and its masculine form *bucculus*) has another meaning as well: it can refer to young oxen, whose dewlaps hang down like little cheeks. Furthermore, the words *buccae* and *buccella* (a mouthful or morsel) are derived from *bucca* to indicate the amount of food the mouth can hold; hence, those with puffier cheeks are called *bucculenti* or *buccones*.

The ears (*aures*), according to some, are named from "drawing in" (*haurienda*) the voice, or perhaps from "hearing" (*audiendo*); thus they were originally called *audes*. A person with large or keen ears is called *auritus*. Those who hear nothing are "deaf" (*surdi*), while those with poor hearing are called "hard of hearing" (*surdastri*). Interestingly, Pliny notes that unnamed herbs are called "deaf" because their names are never heard; from this, the word "absurd" (*absurdum*) originated, referring to something so strange it has never been heard of. Finally, the surname of the Flaccus family took its origin from drooping and flabby ears. The ancients would also touch a witness's ear to summon his memory; the witness would first offer his ear to be tugged, as it was illegal to touch the ear of an unwilling witness.

In the upper lip, there is a small groove that Lactantius called the *lacuna*. The lips (*labia* or *labra*) are the parts that pull the mouth tight or open it wide; Pliny notes that the surname Labeo is derived from them. The word *labrum* is also used for a vessel. The mouth (*os*) is the opening between the cheeks, though many authors, particularly poets, use the word to represent the entire human face. The diminutive form is *osculum*, or "little mouth," which also means a "kiss," since a kiss is performed by contracting the mouth into a small shape. Another diminutive is *oscillum*. The chin (*mentum*) originates at the base of the lower lip; while Pliny attributes it only to humans, Plautus assigns it to certain animals. It was a Greek custom, according to Pliny, for suppliants to touch the chin of the person they were beseeching. That part of the face marked by "laughing-lines" (*gelasini*) when a person smiles is called the *rictus*, which is known for revealing many emotional states.

The entire human face, which lights up in joy and tightens in grief, reflecting the many disturbances of the soul, is called the *vultus* (expression), from *volendo* (wishing). Lucretius uses the word *vultum* in the neuter gender; it is a feature found in no living creature but man. From the *vultus* come many forms of mockery; thus, the ancients called those who mocked others with facial distortions *sanniones*.

The back of the head is called the *cervix* (nape), while the front is the *gula* (throat) or *jugulus* (collarbone). These together make up the neck (*collum*), which Sipontinus suggests is named from *colendo* (adorning), as it is often decorated with collars and ornaments. Attached to the neck is the trunk (*truncus*), the part of the body excluding the arms and legs, known to the Greeks as the *thorax*. However, physicians use the term *thorax* specifically for the cavity containing the heart and lungs. The trunk is divided into front and back; the front begins at the *jugulum*, where there is a small hollow particularly vulnerable to injury—hence the word *jugulare*, to kill with a blade. From the *jugulum*, the chest (*pectus*) begins, extending to the stomach and bounded by the sides. In the center of the chest are the breasts (*mammae*), which also mean "udders" (*ubera*); in some contexts, *mamma* refers to a nurse. The ancients even called breasts *tatae*, though this word also meant "nurse." From *mamma* we get the diminutive *mamilla*, also called the *pupilla*, although