History of Monsters. 333

should be explained as one who, observing portents, interprets something or foretells the future from the appearance of monsters. Alternatively, a *teratologos* is one who speaks of monsters, or narrates wondrous things, or uses monstrous words. From this comes the term *teratologia* [teratology], which signifies a monstrous and prodigious narrative; though this term can also be applied to a history of monsters, in which a complete account of monsters is provided.

Moreover, a man who performs monstrous and never-before-seen feats, such as a conjurer, is called a *terateugos*. From this, the effect of such a prodigious work is called *teratourgia* [teraturgy]. This also gives rise to *terētheus* (akin to *terateus*), meaning a juggler or an impostor. Finally, relevant to our subject is the feminine noun *teratotokos*, used for a woman who gives birth to monsters, from which subsequently arises *teratotokia*—a monstrous birth.

EPITHETS

Since a monster, by the novelty and unusual nature of its form, strikes the human mind with profound wonder, it has been rightly called "miraculous." Furthermore, they have called it "unformed," "foul," "deformed," and "enormous," because it was shaped incorrectly by nature. Because its deformity strikes horror in those who see it, they have dubbed it "horrific," "horrible," "dreadful," and "terrifying." In this sense, Homer called it *pelōron deinon*, meaning a terrible and formidable monster—as in the *Odyssey*, where *deinon* means horrific and horrible.

At the same time, Theocritus in his *Idylls* calls a monster *amykton*, because it cannot be soothed, being harsh and rigid. However, there the word "monster" is used in a sense different from our own, just as Oppian in his *Halieutica* used the term *polydēriton* to mean something contentious and controversial. It is well-established and certain that a monster is called "limb-heavy" [*membrosus*] because of the enormous size or number of its limbs, according to the verse by Mantuanus: "We saw vast ghosts and limb-heavy monsters."

Furthermore, if such a deformity pertains to the head, it can be called "large-headed" [*capitosus*], as in another verse: "Which from its own blood brought forth a large-headed monster." Thus, if authors sometimes call a monster "great," "immense," or "huge," they are referring to a giant stature. But when they call monsters "deadly," "fateful," or "menacing," they are viewing them as portents and prodigies, insofar as they can predict something, as Valerius Flaccus asserts: "Meanwhile, the city was terrified by auguries and menacing monsters."

However, when one reads in the poets of "rabid," "wild," "infamous," "grim," "savage," "furious," "dreadful," "pestilential," and "impious" monsters, one should know that they are then using the word "monster" in a sense different from the one we are currently discussing. It would be better, according to our meaning, to use the word employed by Hesychius, namely *hyperphyes*. This term signifies something exceeding the bounds of nature or something admirable, both of which are observed in a monster, as was explained in the definition provided above.