History of Monsters 327

human species in any way, as far as the substance of the act is concerned. Consequently, these beings possess a dissimilarity from their parents that is not merely accidental or individual, but specific. To the second genus, Septalius assigns those monsters that enter the world with superfluous limbs. In these cases, nature intended to create those parts, but not in the place where they formed, nor in that manner; thus, they differ from their parents in two respects. Third and finally, he categorizes those monsters consisting of parts that are not correctly arranged. Here, nature intended to form the parts, but erred in their manner and order; thus, the mistake occurs neither in what is made, nor in where it is made, but only in the manner of its making.

In his short work on monsters, Johann Georg Schenck distinguishes various types based on the abundance or scarcity of matter, as well as its poor quality and the imagination of the parents. Under the "excess of matter," he includes conjoined twins, the two-headed, the four-handed, the three-footed, giants, and hermaphrodites. To a "defect of matter," he refers dwarfs, the headless, the one-handed, and the footless. Finally, he assigns other foul and absurd conformations of humans and other animals to the "poor quality of matter" and the "imagination of the parents."

Ulisse Aldrovandi, a man most adorned by the generosity of the Muses and the Graces, established four categories of monsters in a certain catalogue of his works. In the first, monsters are placed due to excess or deficiency; in the second are those arising from the mating of animals of different species; in the third are those whose causes are attributed to the imagination; and finally, the fourth category consists of those monsters that stem from non-sublunary causes.

Benedictus Pererius seems to assign many more categories, stating that there are many kinds of monsters since a monster can be created in various ways. First, in terms of sex—for instance, if the sex is uncertain, or if it possesses both, as is the case with a hermaphrodite. Second, because of some quality, such as excessive thickness or thinness, or some other notable and unusual quality. Third, in the excess or defect of size, as when limbs are larger or smaller than is right. Fourth, in position, as when parts are transposed contrary to their natural habit. Fifth, in figure, as when a human does not have an upright figure but a prone one like a quadruped, or if a human has a face or another part that is not human, but beast-like. Sixth, in diet and behavior; for those who eat human flesh, such as cannibals, must be counted among the monsters and portents of human nature. Seventh, in number, such as if a human is born with two heads, or with six fingers, or is one-eyed or one-footed. However, in our opinion, Pererius does not seem to differ much from the others in assigning these categories. The previously cited authors proceeded through general headings, while he approached more specific differences—though the differences of monsters based on time, such as an infant born with a beard or teeth (which will be discussed in its proper place), cannot be conveniently reduced to his system.

Alexander Massaria, a man of no ordinary learning, established that monsters are indeed errors of nature, but he reduced all these errors—not departing at all from the doctrine of Galen—to the effects of "bad composition." Indeed, Galen, having explained the differences in diseases of similar parts, mentions another kind of disease of instrumental parts, which is called a "bad constitution" or a "faulty composition of the limbs."

The afflictions of these parts are either simple or compound. Setting the latter aside, Massaria identifies four simple afflictions of the organic parts: first, foul conformation or corrupted form; second, vitiated size; third, a depraved number of parts; and fourth, a faulty position of those same parts. Form is rendered worse in three ways: first, through a natural vice of figure contracted in the womb. Galen, in his *Art of Medicine*, admits to having observed the stomach, bladder, and liver performing their duties poorly due to an innate defect of conformation. Second, the form of the parts is corrupted due to an accidental and external defect of figure occurring after birth; examples of this include dislocations or poorly healed fractures, and artificially made monsters can be reduced to this category. Thirdly, form is rendered foul by the loss of