322 Ulisse Aldrovandi

resemble them, but only show certain rudimentary traces and outlines of those beasts, from which physiognomists can later deduce various human behaviors—a doctrine contained in Aristotle's *Physiognomonica*.

Sometimes, even in inanimate things, events occur arising from hidden causes that are loosely termed monsters. Examples include the specters of men fighting with swords in the sky, or the likenesses of beasts appearing in the clouds—though these ought to be called portents and prodigies rather than monsters. This is why, in ancient times, the Jews in the city of Jerusalem, having seen for a period of forty days various troops of horsemen armed with spears and dressed in golden robes in the air and having heard the clashing of shields, constantly prayed that these monsters might be turned to good. The Jewish historian Josephus records that these portents appeared before the destruction of Jerusalem. Virgil also commemorated such monsters, or rather prodigies, when he sang: "Nor did Tritonia give those signs with doubtful monsters."

The name "monster" also seems to be assigned to those creatures which, although they possess a single nature within their own kind and a perfect constitution, are nevertheless born from a female of another species—as if a woman were to give birth to a frog or a serpent. Historians report that this once happened in Umbria, which Lucan had in mind when he sang: "And the infant terrified its own mother."

Similarly, on the pastures of Nicippus, according to Aelian, a sheep gave birth to a lion. According to the Colmar annals, in the year 1276 in Zurich, a domestic she-wolf gave birth to two red wolves and several spotted dogs. Some call these "quasi-monsters" rather than true monsters, as they have a monstrous origin but not a monstrous substance. Not unlike these are white children born to Black parents, or conversely, Black children born to white parents—an opinion which Paré seems to follow. Indeed, these offspring can also be called quasi-monsters, for they cause no wonder in those who behold them, except in comparison to their parents.

Finally, it should be noted that just as certain human monsters are born within individual nations, there are likewise "monstrous peoples" within the human race as a whole—such as the One-eyed people, the Dog-headed people, and similar groups said to inhabit Africa. However, such creatures do not truly deserve the name "monster," since they are born from similar parents. They may be called monsters by us, but they are not considered monsters by the locals, as they provoke no wonder among them. What is written here about humans of this type, we declare should also be understood regarding beasts. For historians recount that fish with human faces have been found, and Alessandro Alessandri mentions a merman. Fregoso also records a fish with a human likeness covered in eel skin. Moreover, Cardano and Belon have reported that a "woman-fish" was captured in a certain lake in Pomerania after floods and fierce sea storms. These creatures were treated individually above in the first chapter and in the section on differences.

To these we may add, from Indian history, eels with goat-like tails which emerge from Indian hiding places and flow toward the sea when the rivers overflow; though other authors claim these are born and raised in the Indian Ocean. Therefore, although these are rarely seen, they cannot be called true monsters, as they do not degenerate from their own kind.

Here, for the reader's benefit, we present an illustration of a quite deformed African animal. It has a round body like a tortoise, and its back is adorned by two yellow lines intersecting at right angles. At each end of these lines, an eye and an ear are fixed, so that this animal sees with four eyes and hears with as many ears. It has but a single mouth and belly, but many feet surround its globular body so that it can turn in any direction. Its tail is long and very hairy at the tip. This creature does not differ much from Ramusio’s four-headed animal, which had four heads arranged in such an order that they faced the four quarters of the world; whichever way one of these heads directed its path, the rest of the body followed immediately, without any need to turn around.