History of Monsters. 286

stretched out, while she leans on a spear with her left hand; the inscription is "VENVS GENETRIX" (Venus the Mother). Since the Romans, and especially the Julian clan, were accustomed to trace their lineage back to Venus, it is said that this coin was struck to celebrate the success of a birth.

Since there are nearly infinite types of coins, only the rarer ones should be listed here. It should be noted that while the gold and silver coins of Otho are rare, the ancient bronze ones do not seem to be. Likewise, the silver coins of Augustus are rare, especially those featuring an oak crown on the reverse, and those representing an equestrian statue of Augustus are rarer still. The bronze coins of Vespasian are rare, particularly those displaying the image of a captured Judea. Only those bronze coins of Tiberius that feature an engraved image of a temple on one side are considered rare. Similarly rare are the bronze coins with the image of Augustus that have a rostral crown on the reverse. The bronze coins of Caligula are indeed rare, especially those decorated with the image of the Goddess of Piety. Among the bronze coins of Claudius, those with a double cornucopia on the reverse are rare. As for Nero, his bronze coins showing a beaked ship are rare, and those featuring the engraved image of his wife, Poppaea, are the rarest of all. The bronze coins of Galba that display a statue of Victory are also rare. The coins of Severus are rare when they show two heads, and extremely rare when they depict a temple.

The coins of Commodus are rare when they feature the Mother of the Gods, and rarest when four seasons and four boys are seen. While many coins of Antoninus are found, those showing the image of Italy with Aeneas carrying Anchises are the rarest. Hadrian’s coins featuring multiple figures are rare. Also rare are the coins of Lucius Verus that have multiple icons, as well as those representing a statue of the Emperor being crowned by Rome. The coins of Marcus Aurelius that are filled with multiple figures are rare, and those showing the image of the Temple of Diana at Ephesus are rarer still. The coins of Domitian depicting an equestrian statue of the Emperor are of the utmost rarity. Likewise, the coins of Nerva featuring an image of "Rome Reborn" are not to be found.

Caracalla's coins featuring the image of Hercules are rare, and those showing Hercules slaying the Hydra are the rarest. Coins of Geta with three riding figures are rare, as are those of Alexander where his own portrait appears with that of his mother, Mamaea. Similarly, the coins of Gordian the Younger with many figures upon a bridge are rare, and those with images of Hercules and Mercury are rarer still. The coins of Philip featuring both his own portrait and his son’s are extremely rare, just as the coins of Marcia featuring the images of Philip—namely her husband and her son—are rare. Finally, because the coins of Vitellius are so exceedingly rare, they are highly valued.

Regarding specific portraits, coins are rare for Caligula, Nero, Claudius, Germanicus, Drusus, Galba, Titus, Nerva, Paulina, Lucilla, Crispina, Severus, Geta, Caracalla, Julia Pia, Julia Mamaea, Maximus, Maximinus, Pupienus, Balbinus, Philip the Younger, Decius the Younger, Trebonianus, Volusian, Valerian the Elder, and Gallienus. Let these remarks suffice for coins representing the human form.

IMAGES

Since the fabled images to be reviewed in this section must represent either some part of the human form or a complete figure, we have decided first to record some observations concerning body parts, so that we may then briefly survey the divine and profane statues of the ancients. According to the opinion of Giambattista della Porta, the depiction of a lowered head signifies a humble spirit, just as a head held back signifies arrogance; when the head is portrayed leaning to the side, it signifies weariness. A human head equipped with snaky hair, representing the head of Medusa, was formerly depicted on gravestones, either so that the violators of the tombs