finally, moles and other natural blemishes scattered across the face bear a resemblance to the remaining stars of the eighth sphere.

Furthermore, those parts of the human body through which waste is expelled emulate the darkness to which fallen angels and wicked men are destined, like the dregs of the world. Moreover, according to Saint Augustine, man exists alongside stones, grows like plants, feels like beasts, and understands like angels. Additionally, according to Georgius Venetus, when man interprets the divine mind, he performs the duty of an angel; when he rules over all things he is permitted to govern, he shares the prerogative of an archangel; when he encompasses the strengths of all his subjects and draws them together with a heavenly force, he owes this function to the celestial Principalities. When he is strengthened by virtue against the enemies of truth, he receives this faculty from the Powers; he receives help to subdue the enemy within from the Dominations; aid to reach his proper and destined end from the Thrones; the light to conceive super-celestial images from the Cherubim; and finally, a singular love for the divine from the Seraphim. For these just reasons, Saint John called man "the world" when he said, "The world knew him not." In Italian he is called *uomo*, in French *Homme*, in Spanish *El varón*, and in German *Ein Mensch*.

A female human is called *mulier* in Latin, as if it were *mollior* (softer), derived from *mollitia* (softness), as Varro suggested. This name usually refers to one who is no longer a virgin. Indeed, when some criticized Cicero for marrying the young Popilia when he was sixty, he is said to have replied, "Tomorrow she will be a woman." Nevertheless, as the jurist Gaius noted, the term *mulier* can also refer to a virgin—specifically one who is sexually mature and of marriageable age. Ulpian also used this word in both senses, for both a virgin and a married woman.

Among the Hebrews, a woman is called *Issah*, similar to *virago*, because she was formed from the rib of a man—namely, Adam—or because she was meant to bring help to man, or because she ought to exercise a spirit that is not soft but virile in managing a household, or finally because she was given to man for the sake of offspring. Another name is *Necheuah*, from the verb *Nachah*, meaning "to hollow out," because offspring lie hidden in a woman's womb, as in a concave space, until the proper time—though this name also applies to the females of other animals. Furthermore, the terms *Nashim* and *Eshieth* certainly mean woman, but are mostly used for a wife or spouse.

To the Greeks, a woman is called *gyne*, as if from *gone* (birthing), since it was said to our first parent Eve, representing all women: "In pain you shall bring forth children." The Italians call a woman *Donna*, which sounds like *danno* (harm), since she brought no small harm to the human race. Hence, a certain poet, reflecting on this, sang: "A woman is like a general rule; why? Because in many cases the rule fails, and so does woman." For indeed, at the very start of creation, she afflicted the world with ruinous loss and deadly destruction. It is no wonder, then, that someone sang on this subject: "Adam lost a rib because of a woman; because of a wife, he lost his very soul." In French, a woman is called *Femme*, in Spanish *Mugier*, and in German *Ein Weib* or *Frau*.

DIFFERENCES

Having written enough about synonyms, let us now proceed to the differences. When we consider the varied dispositions of human beings, we find two general types: one is unlearned and rustic, always prioritizing utility over honor; the other is deeply imbued with natural logic and places dignity above all things. To this latter kind belong praise, honor, glory, faith, and every virtue, while to the former belong profit, gain, and pleasure—the greatest enemy of virtue. If we carefully weigh the variety of characters, we will observe that humans take on the natures and powers of all animals. For some are fierce like tigers, others predatory like wolves, others monstrous like serpents, others strong like lions, others timid,